Chapter 1: Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry
Chapter 1 lays the quantitative foundation of chemistry. Learners study matter and its measurement, the laws of conservation of mass and constant proportions, and Dalton's atomic theory. The central idea of the mole connects the number of particles, the mass in grams and, for a gas, the volume at standard conditions, with Avogadro's number linking them. Atomic and molecular masses, the empirical and molecular formula, and balancing equations by conserving atoms are developed step by step. Two diagrams show the conservation of mass and what the mole connects. Worked examples cover moles, masses and formulae, with graded practice that prepares learners for all later chemistry.
Chapter 2: Structure of Atom
Chapter 2 builds the modern picture of the atom. Learners meet the subatomic particles, the proton, neutron and electron, and define atomic number and mass number. The atomic models of Thomson, Rutherford and Bohr are traced, each refining the last, leading to electrons arranged in shells that hold up to two n squared electrons. Subshells and orbitals are introduced, and electronic configurations are written using the Aufbau, Pauli and Hund rules. Two diagrams show the shell model and the order of filling. Worked examples cover configurations, isotopes and particle counts, with graded practice that underpins bonding and the periodic table that follow.
Chapter 3: Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties
Chapter 3 explains how the periodic table organises every element. Learners study the modern periodic law, that properties are a periodic function of atomic number, and how the table divides into periods, groups and the s, p, d and f blocks. The periodic trends in atomic radius, ionisation enthalpy, electronegativity and metallic character are developed from the pull of the nucleus and the number of shells. Two diagrams show the blocks of the table and the trend arrows across and down it. Worked examples cover trends and block identification, with graded practice that helps learners predict the behaviour of elements from their position.
Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure
Chapter 4 explains why atoms join and what shapes molecules take. Learners study the octet rule, ionic bonding by the transfer of electrons, and covalent bonding by the sharing of electron pairs, drawn as Lewis structures. The VSEPR theory predicts molecular shape from the repulsion of electron pairs, giving linear, bent and tetrahedral forms, and bond polarity is explained through electronegativity. Two diagrams show ionic and covalent bonding and the shapes from VSEPR. Worked examples cover bond type, shape and polarity, with graded practice that connects the arrangement of electrons to the structure and behaviour of molecules.
Chapter 5: Chemical Thermodynamics
Chapter 5 develops the energy changes of reactions. Learners define a system and its surroundings, internal energy, and the first law of thermodynamics, that the change in internal energy equals heat added plus work done. Enthalpy is introduced as the heat at constant pressure, with exothermic and endothermic reactions, and Hess's law follows because enthalpy is a state function. Entropy and the Gibbs energy, delta G equals delta H minus T delta S, decide spontaneity. Two diagrams show system and surroundings and the energy profiles. Worked examples cover the first law, enthalpy, Hess's law and Gibbs energy, with graded practice throughout.
Chapter 6: Equilibrium
Chapter 6 studies reactions that reach a balance. Learners meet reversible reactions and dynamic equilibrium, where forward and reverse rates become equal and concentrations stay constant. The equilibrium constant measures which side is favoured, and Le Chatelier's principle predicts how a disturbed equilibrium shifts. The same ideas describe acids and bases, with the pH scale defined as minus the logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. Two diagrams show rates reaching equilibrium and the pH scale. Worked examples cover the equilibrium constant, Le Chatelier shifts and pH calculations, with graded practice that links equilibrium to acidity and the control of reaction yield.
Chapter 7: Redox Reactions
Chapter 7 presents reactions as the transfer of electrons. Learners define oxidation as the loss of electrons and reduction as the gain, summarised by OIL RIG, and see that the two always occur together. Oxidation numbers track the electrons, rising on oxidation and falling on reduction, and simple rules assign them. Oxidising and reducing agents are identified, and redox equations are balanced by matching electrons lost to electrons gained. Two diagrams show electron transfer and the change in oxidation number. Worked examples cover assigning oxidation numbers and identifying agents, with graded practice that explains processes from rusting to combustion.
Chapter 8: Organic Chemistry: Some Basic Principles and Techniques
Chapter 8 opens the chemistry of carbon. Learners study why carbon forms so many compounds, through its tetravalency and its ability to bond to itself in chains and rings, called catenation. Organic molecules are represented by structural, condensed and molecular formulae, grouped into homologous series by functional group, and named by the IUPAC system. Structural isomerism, where the same formula gives different structures, is introduced. Two diagrams show the four bonds of carbon with catenation and a homologous series. Worked examples cover general formulae, naming and isomers, with graded practice that prepares learners for the study of hydrocarbons and beyond.
Chapter 9: Hydrocarbons
Chapter 9 studies compounds of carbon and hydrogen only. Learners classify hydrocarbons as saturated alkanes, with the formula C n H two n plus two, and unsaturated alkenes and alkynes, which contain double and triple bonds. The characteristic reactions follow from the bonds, with alkanes reacting by substitution and unsaturated hydrocarbons by addition, while all undergo combustion. Aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene, with delocalised ring electrons, are introduced as unusually stable. Two diagrams show single, double and triple bonds and the benzene ring. Worked examples cover general formulae and reaction types, with graded practice that connects hydrocarbons to fuels and everyday materials.
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